The oTToman empire 51 easTern europe 54 CHAPTER 3 THE REFORMATION 56 The reformaTion Begins 57 The counTer-reformaTion 59 Diplomacy in The age of reformaTion 61 The wars of religion 63 the peace oF augsBurg 68 CHAPTER 4 THE THIRTY YEARS WAR BEGINS 72 The crisis in germany 73 the catholic league 77 The crisis in The haBsBurg lanDs 81 CHAPTER 5 MILITARY CAMPAIGNS OF THE THIRTY YEARS WAR 88 The Triumph of The caTholics 1619 29 89 The crisis of The war 1629 35 94
attempts at peace 98 The european war in germany 1635 45 100 CHAPTER 6 AFTERMATH OF THE THIRTY YEARS WAR 105 resoluTion in germany 105 resoluTion in The neTherlanDs sweDen anD france 107 the Fronde 108 proBlems noT solveD By The war 111 proBlems solveD By The war 113 CONCLUSION 117 GLOSSARY 118 BIBLIOGRAPHY 120 INDEX 125
Introduction I n the 15th century observers such as the philosopher and clerical statesman Nicholas of Cusa suggested that the Middle Age had attained its conclusion and a new era had begun The Papacy the symbol of the spiritual unity of Christendom had lost much of its prestige in the Great Western Schism a period from 1378 to 1417 in which there were two and later three rival popes Lay ideals in the Italian peninsula also began to affect the Papacy In the 16th century the Protestant Reformation reacted against the worldliness and corruption of the Holy See and the Roman Catholic church responded in its turn by a revival of piety known as the Counter-Reformation While the forces that were to erupt in the Protestant movement were gathering strength the narrow horizons of the Old World were wid ened by the expansion of Europe to America and the East The 16th century in Europe was a period of vigorous economic expansion This expansion in turn played a major role in the many other transformations social political and cultural of the early modern age By 1500 the population in most areas of Europe was increasing after two centuries of decline or stagnation The bonds of commerce within 8
The Council of Constance took action to end the Great Western Schism an event that contributed to the papacy losing some influence in the late Middle Ages 9
